9. Polio vaccines and AIDS
SV-40, the cancer-causing monkey virus found in polio vac- cines and administered to millions of unsuspecting people throughout the world, was just one of numerous simian viruses known to have contaminated polio vaccines [38:57,58;93;94]. “As monkey kidney culture is host to innumerable simian viruses, the number found varying in relation to the amount of work expended to find them, the problem presented to the manufacturer is consid- erable, if not insuperable,” one early vaccine researcher wrote to a congressional panel studying the safety of growing live polio-virus vaccine in monkey kidneys [95]. “As our technical methods im- prove we may find fewer and fewer lots of vaccine which can be called free from simian virus [95].”
According to Harvard Medical School professor Ronald Des- rosier, the practice of growing polio vaccines in monkey kidneys is “a ticking time bomb [83:159].” Evidently, some viruses can live inside monkeys without causing harm. But if these viruses were to somehow cross species and enter the human population, new dis- eases could occur. Desrosier continued: “The danger in using monkey tissue to produce human vaccines is that some viruses produced by monkeys may be transferred to humans in the vac- cine, with very bad health consequences [83:159].” Desrosier also warns that testing can only be done for known viruses, and that our knowledge is limited to about “2 percent of existing monkey vi- ruses [83:159].” Craig Engesser, a spokesman for Lederle Labora- tories, a large vaccine manufacturing company, acknowledged that “you can’t test for something if you don’t know it’s there [96].”
Virus detection techniques were crude and unreliable during the 1950s, 60s, and 70s when polio vaccines were initially produced and dispensed. It wasn’t until the mid 1980s that new and more sophisticated testing procedures were developed [84:5;96]. That was when researchers discovered that about 50 percent of all Afri- can green monkeysCthe primate of choice for making polio vac- cinesCwere infected with simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), a virus closely related to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), the infectious agent thought to precede AIDS [97-100]. This caused some researchers to wonder whether HIVs may simply be SIVs “residing in and adapting to a human host [101].” It caused others to suspect that SIV may have mutated into HIV once it was intro- duced into the human population by way of contaminated polio vaccines [59:54+;96-100;102-104].
Vaccine authorities were so concerned about the possibility that SIV was a precursor to HIV, and that polio vaccines were the means of transmission from monkey to human, that The World Health Organization (WHO) convened two meetings of experts in 1985 to explore the data and consider their options [100,105]. Af- ter all, SIV was very similar to HIV and occurred naturally in the monkey species predominantly used by vaccine manufacturers [98,100]. Nevertheless, WHO concluded that the vaccines were safe and insisted that vaccination campaigns should continue un- abated [100,105].
Shortly thereafter, Japanese researchers conducted their own investigation and found that African green monkeys used to pro- duce polio vaccines had antibodies against SIV [106]. The impli- cation was clear: monkeys used to produce polio vaccines were natural carriers of a virus that looked and acted like HIV, the in- fectious agent linked to AIDS. In 1989, they recommended that monkeys infected with SIV not be used to make polio vaccines [106].
In 1990, wild chimpanzees in Africa were found to be infected with a strain of SIV that was nearly identical to HIV [107]. Some researchers called it “the missing link” to the origins of human immunodeficiency virus [108]. And since chimpanzees were used to test viruses for potential use in vaccines, and were kept in cap- tivity by research laboratories, they could have been a source of vaccine contamination [109,110]. Scientific concerns were also heightened when researchers found some West Africans who were infected with an SIV-like virus that was a fundamental twin to HIV. They called it HIV-2, and like the initial HIV subtype, it was implicated in the development of AIDS [111]. According to Robert Gallo, an expert on the AIDS virus, some versions of the SIV monkey virus are virtually indistinguishable from some hu- man variants of HIV: “The monkey virus is the human virus. There are monkey viruses as close to isolates of HIV-2 as HIV-2 isolates are to each other [59:106+].” In May 1991, virus-detection techniques were improved once again, and researchers found SIV DNA in the kidneys of infected monkeys [112]. Minced monkey kidneys were (and still are) used to produce the live polio vaccine [3;59:60]. SIV was also found in the cancer cells of an AIDS vic- tim, and in other people as well [113-115]. To many researchers, this trail of evidence had become too persuasive to deny. Apparently, millions of people were infected with monkey viruses capable of causing AIDS [101], and this cross-species transfer most likely occurred by way of SIV-contaminated polio vaccines [59;84;96-100;102-104;116-119].
10. Didn’t AIDS originate in Africa?
Most historians agree that AIDS originated in Africa [120]. But Salk tested his vaccine in the U.S., and Sabin’s trials were con- ducted in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union [100]. If tainted polio vaccines were responsible for introducing SIV and HIV into humans, why did the initial cases of AIDS show up on this remote continent?
In March 1951, several years before Drs. Jonas Salk and Albert Sabin would scuffle over whose vaccine was the true prophylactic, Dr. Hilary Koprowski announced at a medical conference that he had become the first doctor in history to test a polio vaccine on humans. His “volunteers” included several institutionalized chil- dren with mental handicaps. They drank the vaccine in chocolate milk [121].
From 1957 to 1960, after years of tinkering with monkey kid- neys and polio germs, Koprowski tested his own experimental polio vaccine on 325,000 equatorial Africans, including 75,000 citizens of Leopoldville, Belgian Congo (now Kinshasa, Zaire) [59:59;121]. Called by drums, rural natives traveled to local vil- lages where they had a liquid vaccine squirted into their mouths [122]. Ninety-eight percent of the vaccine recipients were infants and toddlers [121]. The youngest children received 15 times the adult dosage [103:98]. Though Koprowski claimed he had the backing of the World Health Organization, WHO denied sanction- ing the large-scale trials [123].
In 1959, Dr. Albert Sabin reported in the British Medical Jour- nal that Koprowski’s polio vaccine used in the African trials con-
tained an “unidentified” cell-killing virus [124]. It was never iden- tified. However, in 1986 the earliest known blood sample contain- ing antibodies against HIV was traced back to 1959. The serum came from a patient visiting a clinic in Leopoldville [125]. There is no evidence that HIV infected humans before 1959 [126,127]. Gerald Myers, a genetic sequencing expert with Los Alamos Na- tional Laboratories in New Mexico, tracked the evolution of HIV and confirmed that today’s major subtypes of the AIDS virus in humans appear to have arisen as recently as 1960 [128].
Koprowski’s vaccine was not approved for human use, so it was discontinued in 1960 following the African trials [100]. Thus, it was only administered to inhabitants of the Belgian Congo, Rwanda and Burundi [104,121]Cthe precise area where high lev- els of HIV infection were identified by researchers 30 years later [129]. Furthermore, the AIDS virus is known to infect mucous cells, prevalent in the mouth [59:60]. The African vaccines were squirted into people’s mouths. Could squirting an HIV- contaminated polio vaccine into people’s mouths cause AIDS? According to Tom Folks, chief retrovirologist at the CDC, “Any time a person has a lesion in his mouth, then there could be trans- mission” of the virus [59:60]. Dr. Robert Bohannon of Baylor Col- lege of Medicine maintains that the process of squirting the polio vaccine into people’s mouths would tend to aerosolize some of the liquid. Tiny drops could then go directly into the lungs, and from there to the blood cells susceptible to infection [59:60]. This would have been an efficient mode of HIV transmission [100].
Disease experts believe that the average time between HIV infection and the development of AIDS is 8-10 years [100]. If the African polio vaccine was indeed contaminated with SIV/HIV, initial outbreaks of AIDS would have occurred from the mid- 1960s to early 1970s. This period accurately coincides with the emergence of AIDS in equatorial Africa [130].
11. Test the polio vaccines
Authorities are reluctant to acknowledge the possibility that medical scientists, preoccupied with growing polio vaccines in virus-laden monkey kidneys, may have been responsible for bringing about the AIDS pandemic. For example, Dr. David Heymann, who heads the World Health Organization’s Global Program on AIDS, flatly stated that “the origin of the AIDS virus is of no im- portance to science today [59:106+].” William Haseltine, a Har- vard pathology professor and AIDS researcher also believes that any discussion about the origin of AIDS is distracting and nonpro- ductive. “It’s not relevant,” and “I’m not interested in discussing it [59:106+].” Jonas Salk won’t discuss the subject either. He is now working on an AIDS vaccine [59:55]. Albert Sabin believes “you can’t hang Koprowski with that [59:60].” And Koprowski dis- missed the idea with a laugh, then later claimed “this is a highly theoretical situation [59:106+].” However, samples of the polio vaccines used in Africa are kept in freezers at the Wistar Institute where Koprowski did much of his research. They could be tested [59:106+].
Tom Folks of the CDC thinks it’s a good idea to test the seed stocks of polio because “any time we can learn more about the natural history [of AIDS], it helps us understand the pathogenesis and...the transmission [59:106+].” Robert Gallo also thinks it’s important to determine whether a monkey virus sparked AIDS. Questions like this “are of more than academic interest because answering them may help avoid future zoonotic catastrophesCthat is, transmission of disease from lower animals to humans [131].” Responding to these concerns, some AIDS researchers formally requested samples of the original polio vaccine seed stocks. But the government will neither release nor test them because there are “only a small number of vials” of the material, and tests “might use it all up [59:108].”
12. AIDS within the Gay community
If AIDS originated in Africa via contaminated polio vaccines, how did this disease spread to male homosexuals in America? In 1974, clinics in New York and California began experimental treatments for gay men afflicted with herpes. Therapy consisted of multiple doses of the live polio vaccine [132]. As noted earlier, this vaccine was produced in the kidneys of the African Green monkey, a known reservoir for simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), a likely precursor to HIV [59;84;97-104]. Beginning in the early 1980s, simultaneous outbreaks of Kaposi sarcoma and serious opportunistic infections (later associated with AIDS) were reported among homosexual men, especially in New York City, San Francisco, and Los Angeles [99]. This time span coincides with the average incubation period between HIV infection and the development of AIDS [100].
In 1982, the CDC concluded that such outbreaks “strongly suggests the occurrence of a single epidemic of underlying immuno- suppression... [133]” The following year, HIV was identified as the causative agent [99]. And in 1992, Lancet published the first scientific explanation showing how repeated doses of SIV- contaminated polio vaccines may have seeded HIV among Ameri- can homosexual men [99].